| Word | Definition & Example |
|---|---|
| norm n. |
An expected standard of behaviour shared by members of a group. "Social norms about personal space vary noticeably from one culture to another." Collocations: social norm, cultural norm |
| socialisation n. |
The lifelong process by which people learn the values and behaviours of their society. "Schools are widely viewed as one of the central agents of secondary socialisation." Collocations: primary socialisation, agent of socialisation |
| stratification n. |
The hierarchical arrangement of individuals into social classes or layers. "Income inequality is one of the most visible measures of social stratification." Collocations: social stratification, system of stratification |
| mobility n. |
Movement of individuals or groups between social positions. "Upward mobility has slowed in many wealthy countries since the 1980s." Collocations: upward mobility, intergenerational mobility |
| demographic adj. / n. |
Relating to the statistical characteristics of a population; a particular section of a population. "Recent demographic trends point to an ageing population in much of East Asia." Collocations: demographic shift, demographic data |
| cohort n. |
A group of people who share a defining characteristic, especially being born around the same time. "Researchers tracked a cohort of 5,000 children from kindergarten through high school." Collocations: birth cohort, follow a cohort |
| deviance n. |
Behaviour that violates social norms in a given setting. "What counts as deviance in one culture may be considered ordinary in another." Collocations: social deviance, label as deviance |
| institution n. |
An established system of rules, roles, and practices that organises social life. "The family, the school, and the workplace are commonly studied as social institutions." Collocations: social institution, established institution |
| kinship n. |
Family relationships, including those by blood, marriage, or adoption. "Kinship networks often serve as the first line of economic support during a crisis." Collocations: kinship network, kinship ties |
| ethnicity n. |
Shared cultural traditions, ancestry, or language that identify a group. "Ethnicity is socially constructed rather than biologically determined." Collocations: ethnic group, ethnic identity |
| urbanisation n. |
The increasing concentration of populations in towns and cities. "Rapid urbanisation in nineteenth-century Europe transformed both work and family life." Collocations: rapid urbanisation, urbanisation rate |
| class n. |
A category of people sharing similar economic position and life chances. "Class background continues to predict educational attainment more strongly than most policymakers acknowledge." Collocations: working class, class background |
| inequality n. |
An uneven distribution of resources, opportunities, or status. "Inequality of opportunity is harder to measure than inequality of income but arguably more consequential." Collocations: income inequality, structural inequality |
| cohesion n. |
The degree to which members of a group are bonded together. "Strong neighbourhood cohesion has been linked to lower rates of crime and better health outcomes." Collocations: social cohesion, group cohesion |
| assimilate v. |
To absorb individuals or groups into a dominant culture. "Second-generation immigrants tend to assimilate linguistically far more rapidly than their parents." Collocations: assimilate into, fully assimilate |
| subculture n. |
A cultural group within a larger culture, with distinctive values or practices. "Youth subcultures often emerge in response to perceived rigidity in the mainstream." Collocations: youth subculture, distinctive subculture |
| bureaucracy n. |
A formal organisation governed by rules, hierarchy, and a division of labour. "Max Weber argued that modern bureaucracy is more efficient than personal authority but risks dehumanising the people inside it." Collocations: government bureaucracy, layers of bureaucracy |
| stigma n. |
A negative social label attached to a person or group. "Public health campaigns have measurably reduced the stigma associated with seeking mental-health treatment." Collocations: social stigma, attached stigma |
| ethnography n. |
A research method based on detailed observation of a community from within. "The researcher's two-year ethnography of a hospital ward revealed patterns that statistical surveys had missed." Collocations: conduct an ethnography, urban ethnography |
| longitudinal adj. |
Describing a study that follows the same subjects over a long period. "Longitudinal data are essential for distinguishing genuine change from temporary fluctuation." Collocations: longitudinal study, longitudinal data |
| correlate v. |
To show a statistical relationship between two variables. "Years of schooling correlate strongly with later earnings, although correlation is not the same as causation." Collocations: positively correlate, strongly correlate |
| consensus n. |
General agreement among the members of a group. "There is broad scholarly consensus that social ties influence health outcomes independently of income." Collocations: broad consensus, reach a consensus |
| integrate v. |
To bring different groups into equal participation in a society. "Cities that successfully integrate newcomers tend to see lower long-term unemployment among them." Collocations: socially integrate, integrate into |
| marginalise v. |
To push a group to the edge of society and treat them as unimportant. "Communities that have been marginalised for generations often distrust official statistics about themselves." Collocations: marginalised community, systematically marginalise |
| norm-breaking n. / adj. |
Acting in ways that visibly violate the expected behaviours of a group. "Garfinkel's norm-breaking experiments asked students to behave like guests in their own homes to expose the rules nobody usually talks about." Collocations: norm-breaking behaviour, norm-breaking experiment |
How this vocabulary appears on the TOEFL
Sociology vocabulary appears in two distinct places on the TOEFL. In Listening, it shows up as the running terminology of academic talks on socialisation, social class, deviance, or research methods — the lecturer assumes the audience already knows words like cohort, longitudinal, and stratification. In Reading, it tends to appear in passages about historical social change (urbanisation, immigration, family structures) or about how researchers study people. The questions that target this vocabulary most often are paraphrase identification and inference questions where the term carries the logical link between two sentences.
How to study this list effectively
Sociology terms are easier to remember in pairs than in isolation, because the field is built on contrasts: norm vs. deviance, integration vs. marginalisation, assimilation vs. subculture, consensus vs. conflict. Make pair-flashcards for each contrast and quiz yourself on which term fits a given example sentence. The other high-leverage move is to learn the research-method vocabulary (cohort, longitudinal, ethnography, correlate) as a separate cluster — these are the words that decide whether you understand the structure of the lecture or are guessing.
Practise this vocabulary on real TOEFL tests
- Listening practice tests — academic talks on social-science topics
- Reading practice tests — passages on historical and contemporary social topics
- Full-length practice tests — vocabulary in context across all four sections
- More TOEFL vocabulary by topic